IDENTITY paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

IDENTITY paper - Essay Example The word agency in this context refers that 'agency is directly tied to social structures' in so far as they interact and produce society together. Obviously, Agents have complete knowledge of their society and this mutual information that therein produces structures. The everyday ordinary life of an agent leads is simply a part of reproduction in society. The important thing is here that Levine theory primary refers "Ontologiclal" security in the trust. In contrast, Agency, apart from reproduction of society can also lead to the transformation of society. According to Levine a good way to explain this concept is "reflexive monitoring of actions". Reflexive monitoring looks at the skill to look at actions to estimate their effectiveness in achieving their aims. However, if agents can replicate structure through action, they can also transform it. However, according to Levine "in terms of identity formation and maintenance, two key issues pertain to (a) the relevance of the concepts of structure and agency for understanding identity, and (b) the extent to which identity is conceptualized as having an "inner" versus "outer" origin. The first issue involves assumptions regarding individual causality, or personal responsibility; the sociological equivalent of which lies in the notions of reflexivity and agency. It is quite true that this issue has long been ignored in sociology, but as noted, the issue is currently being discussed by late modernists in terms of the structure-agency debate (i.e., how much individuals exercise control independent of social structure versus how much social structure determines individual behavior". (Levine, 2002, pg, 54+) Structural Influence on Identity (A) Gender Base Structural Influence on Identity The benefits of receiving ample parental support and, conversely, the costs of receiving poor parental support during childhood may be the most powerful within "same-sex parent-child dyads". The important point is to note here is that the daughter-mother relationship is central in most women's lives. Certianly, this relationship between mother and daughter is a key influence in the identity formation and the long-term psychosocial adjustment of daughter. Similarly, the son-father relationship has significant influence on the development psychosocial, morality, behaviour and so on. Furthermore, the relationship between father and son influences everything in a man's life, in what he sees himself and in what way he sees all other people. Thus, the amount of support a child receives within this same-sex dyad would be a important determinant of psychosocial and moral values development an individual's life course. "When taken together, this review suggests that although receiving early parental support may be an important predictor of mental and physical health outcomes in later life, the impact of early parental support can be fully appreciated only by identifying the social structural factors that are most closely associated with receiving poor support in early life and understanding how associations between levels of support received during childhood. However, moral and behavior status vary according to following factors. 1. Does the amount of early parental support reported vary by gender of the parent, gender of the child, or racial or socioeconomic status 2. Is the moral of women and men differentially

Intellectual Property Law Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Intellectual Property Law - Research Paper Example With mounting pressures by judicial criticism, intellectual property was regulated under common law and the Statute of Monopolies enacted in 1623 rendered illegal all monopolies except those for a defined term of years; this forms the basis of modern patent law (World Intellectual Property Organization, p.1). The exact origin of intellectual property law is still unknown. However, it is a fact that, terms like intellectual property was used during the initial half of seventeenth century in Britain. The history of intellectual property rights in the modern era started in Germany in 1867. North German Confederation is believed to be the first country which formulated intellectual property laws in the modern era. â€Å"The North German Confederation first used the term â€Å"intellectual property† in 1867, providing for legislative protection in its constitution†(Furst). Since then, intellectual laws evolved in different forms at different parts of the world. Different cou ntries have different types of intellectual property laws. ... Copyright is a form of protection provided to the authors of â€Å"original works† and includes such things as literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain other intellectual creations, both published and unpublished. Copyright does not protect ideas. It only protects the specific and original expression of the idea (Pipers) For example, Windows is the operating system developed by Microsoft. It should be noted that plenty of people, including Bill Gates, worked on the development of Windows operating system. This product is protected with the help of copyright laws. It is illegal to use pirated copies of Windows on computers. Even in China, Microsoft succeeded in winning some cases with respect to copyright violation of its products. â€Å"A local court in Shanghai ruled that Dazhong Insurance must pay Microsoft 2.17 million yuan ($317,900) as compensation for using pirated Microsoft software, NetEase.com reported†(Stan) â€Å"Patents are used to protect new pro duct, process, apparatus, and uses providing the invention is not obvious in light of what has been done before† (European Generic medicines Association). It should be noted that new products are developed only because of the huge efforts undertaken by somebody. Once a new product is developed, it is easy for others to copy it. In other words, leaders and followers are in the market. Leaders always generate new ideas and innovate new products whereas followers try to copy those ideas and innovations. In order to avoid such illegal copying, all new products and services developed by somebody can be protected with the help of patent laws. Patent rights are usually given only for a particular period of time. The owner of a patented product should disclose the innovation to the

Comparison of Oral Drug Administration Strategies

Comparison of Oral Drug Administration Strategies Abstract In this literature assignment the oral route of administration will be discussed and further studied. Particular formulations such as tablets (including chewable as well as buccal tablets), capsules, oral solutions, suspensions and emulsions which can be applied by using this selected route will be compared and any differences or/and similarities between those will be identified. Oral formulations are usually the most convenient for both children and adults and therefore should be the first choice for example pain management etc or generally when required. Speed of absorption (in the oral route it may be slow depending on the preparation and the stomach contents) and duration of effect (slower release compared to other routes for a prolonged effect) are also some of the factors under investigation in this study. According to the advantages and disadvantages of these different formulations it would be useful to identify which is the most preferable formulation by patients followed by specific examples/drugs which are administered orally. Introduction Different drugs require different routes of administration and therefore different dosage forms are produced in order the appropriate absorption to be achieved through the suitable form of the drug. Each substance is absorbed in a different way by the human body. Hence different administration routes are provided and recommended for each substance under which the dose of the drug will be absorbed, delivered and distributed more effectively. The two major classes where through the drug can enter the human body are enteral and parenteral routes. In the enteral route the drug passes directly into the Gastrointestinal tract. Enteral route includes sublingual (under the tongue), oral (swallowing) as well as absorption of the drug through the rectum. On the other hand parenteral routes involve intravascular (the drug is administered into the blood stream), intramuscular (skeletal muscle), subcutaneous (into subcutaneous tissues) and inhalation routes of administration (where the drug is absorbed through the lungs). Parenteral routes, Routes of Drug Administration, RL Copeland, PH.D., Department of Pharmacology Topical preparations include those that result to either mucosal membranes (such as eye drops, nasal) or skin (dermal and transdermal for local and systemic action respectively). The physical characteristics of the drug, its rate of absorption or/and release as well as the possibility of the need of high concentrations at particular sites are some basic key factors that determine the route of administration for each drug. It should be also mentioned that more than one route of administration can be advisable for the substance/drug depending on the patients condition. According to researches it has been proved that the oral route is the most popular route of administration between those that were referred above. This is due to its simplicity, convenience and safety provided. However, there are some disadvantages of the oral route of drug administration involving the long time the drug needs in order to show an effect as well as the interaction of drug substances with enzymes and/or secretions of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastric emptying time as well as the alteration of pH levels into the gastrointestinal tract are factors to investigate in order to achieve maximum absorption of the drug through the oral route. Discussion Tablets Nowadays, one of the most common dosage forms produced by pharmaceutical industries and preferred by the majority of patients is undoubtedly tablets. The category of compressed tablets is the most popular dosage form in use. Tablets are used for either systemic drug delivery or for local drug action as well. They are more preferable than any other dosage form as they are taken orally by patients, which is a convenient and safe way of drug administration and are more stable compared to liquids (physical and chemical stability). Different types of tablets (regarding their shape, size and drug dose) require a different formulation in order to be produced as each category has different properties and alterations may be needed in the choice of excipients each time and in methods used. That means that every tablet is a different situation and as a result different steps should be followed. Tablets have enough advantages in comparison to other dosage forms. First of all they are easier to handle and the preparation procedure offers an accurate dosing of the drug. The possibility of mass production makes production of tablets cheaper and their chemical and physical stability is obviously better compared to liquid dosage forms. Tablets are also compliant with the majority of patients. Disadvantages of tablets are noticed when they are dispensed especially in the elderly and paediatrics where swallowing difficulties are observed. They also belong to the category of slow-acting dosage forms (first-pass effect). Finally their poor bioavailability in combination with the decrease in PH over the time complete the most important disadvantages and create points for improvement. The compressed tablet is the most popular, versatile but most technically difficult dosage form as well. According to European Pharmacopoeia (3rd edition, 1997) tablets are solid preparations each containing a single dose of one or more active ingredients and obtained by compressing uniform volumes of particles. Million tablets are dispensed on a daily basis in the pharmacies all over the UK. Hence pharmacists should be completely aware of how they are made and the steps that follow during the production stage before they reach in the dispensary area of pharmacies. First of all, tablets are called pills by the majority of people. However this name is technically incorrect as tablets are made by compression whereas pills are an ancient solid dose forms prepared by hand into spherical particles about 4 to 6mm in diameter. As it was said above, tablets are made by a process of compression and that is their basic difference compared to pills. There are two main types of press in tablet production: the single -punch press (or eccentric press) and the rotary press (or multistation press). There is one more type, called hydraulic press (used more in research and development work) which requires a more specialized equipment. The first very important factor for investigation in tablet formulation is compressibility. Because the majority of drugs do not have very good compression properties on their own usually require the addition of excipients. Low dose tablets (dose less than 50mg) are used to be prepared by direct compression whereas high dose ones (dose more than 50mg) by using wet granulation technique. Compression properties could be understood better by studying the behaviour of elastic, plastic or fragmenting tablets under compression. Good flow (or alternatively flowability) is the next attribute for investigation. In order to succeed that, tablets require the addition of different excipients (and not only the active drug) such as lubricants, glidants, binders, disintegrants, antiadherents etc. Depending on the drug and the dose of the tablet each time (preparation of low or high dose tablets), different excipients are used. Excipients however, can affect powders properties; hence pharmaceutical industries need to study very well them and their properties in order to avoid any possible errors during the tableting process. 325mg aspirin tablets, by Ragesoss, E. Johnson, 2010 Tablets can be controlled by weight. The whole tablets weight combines the weight of the active drug (drug dose) and the weight of the excipients added after it. Tableting process relies on consistent volumetric filling of the die space set by the bottom punch. Uniformity of tablets can be tested in two ways; weight variation or content uniformity test. Weight variation test occurs for high dose tablets (dose > 50mg) that are uncoated and contain at least 50 % of the active ingredient (drug). On the other hand, content uniformity test is used for coated tablets which contain again the same percentage (at least 50%) of the single active ingredient. In tablet manufacturing, tablets are prepared by powder compression. By that way particles are placed very close to each other and finally a defined size and shape is given. During compression procedure a die and two punches (upper and lower) are used. First of all die is a tool that is used by pharmaceutical industries for cutting or shaping materials by using press. On the other hand, punch is used to describe a hard metal rod which has two different ends; a shaped tip and a blunt butt. The compressive force is applied by the upper punch while the lower one moves at the same time up and down within the tip. The image below describes the whole process from the time that the powder is moved to the die till the tablet is formed. The sequent of events involved in the formation of tablets. Pharmaceutics The science of dosage form design, edited by M.E, Aulton Second edition Coming back to flowability, good flow depends on both active ingredients and the excipients added in the powder mix. The good flow of a powder mix can be ensured by measuring the angle of repose or consolidation index. If flow properties are not very good, then lubricants and glidants are the most appropriate excipients for the improvement of the flow. It should also be noted that only glidants are able to improve a powders flow. Lubricants just decrease the extinction of friction and by that way the flow becomes better. More especially, by the addition of a lubricant the coefficient of friction between the die wall and the tablet during ejection is reduced and by that way the powder has a better flowability. Magnesium stearate is the most commonly used lubricant especially for tablets and functions as an antiadherent. That means that by its addition, it prevents ingredients from picking and sticking to manufacturing equipment during the compression of chemical powders into solid tablets. It is also hydrophobic and reduces the compressibility of many formulations. On the other hand, glidants are added mainly to the dry powders to improve flowability. In general the addition of a glidant or lubricant or both of them can affect the excipients/powders flowability and bulk density. These additions can have great results and turn powders with a very poor flow to powders with a good flow. Apart from lubricants and glidants, formulation of tablets requires the use of other excipients as well. The filler for example which acts as a bulking agent, is used in order to increase the bulk volume of the powder and hence the size of the tablet when the dose of the active ingredient is too low (low dose of a potent drug requires the incorporation of a substance). An ideal filler has to be chemically inert, biocompatible, non-hygroscopic, soluble, compactible, quite tasty and not of very high cost. The filler used most widely is lactose as its properties look enough like the ideal fillers one. The addition of a disintegrant also ensures that the tablet when will be in contact with liquid will break up into small fragments. This promotes quick drug dissolution. During disintegration, the liquid comes in contact with the solid and penetrates the pores of the tablet. Afterwards the tablet breaks slowly into smaller fragments. Two categories of disintegrants exist: those that facilitate water uptake (e.g. surfactants) and that rapture the tablet (e.g. starch). Sticking or picking properties of tablets depend on the addition of antiadherents. Antiadherents reduce adhesion between the powder and the punch faces. Lots of lubricants can be used as antiadherents. Talc or starch have also similar properties. Magnesium stearate which is the most commonly used lubricant (especially for tablets) functions as an antiadherent as well. That means that by its addition, it prevents ingredients from picking and sticking to manufacturing equipment during the compression of chemical powders into solid tablets. It is also hydrophobic and reduces the compressibility of many formulations. Pharmaceutical industries can involve flavouring agents and colourants during tableting procedure too. First of all, a flavouring agent by its addition either gives a more pleasant taste in the tablet or mask an unpleasant one. Flavouring agents cannot be added prior to an operation involving heat as they are usually thermolabile. Usual flavouring agents are essential oils such as anise and cardamom, vanilla or peppermint. Colourant is the last excipient could be added during wet massing method in order to produce high dose tablets. General knowledge of colourants involve tablets identification and patients compliance. Even if colouring procedure finishes during coating stage, the colourant chosen could be added prior to compaction as well. Opacifiers like Titanium oxide and Inorganic materials like Iron oxide are characteristic colourant examples. The choice of the appropriate excipients depends on the type of the tablet as different excipients give different properties. So chewable tablets are not designed to disintegrate since mechanical action is supplied by the patient. Hence there is no need for disintegrants to be contained in to the relevant formulation. Although the drug is immediately released in the mouth, it is swallowed and absorbed from the stomach. Colouring and flavouring is also needed especially in the presence of antacids. Effervescent tablets are dissolved in a glass of water before administration. Plenty of analgesics use this specific type and during this process disinitegration and dissolution are facilitated due to carbon dioxide liberation. Effervescent tablets have a rapid bioavailability and cause less stomach irritation. However extra protection from moisture is required in packaging. Finally extended release tablets have been designed in order to release the drug dose over 12-24 hours until the drug to result to Gastrointestinal tract. They are classified according to the mechanism of drug release (e.g. erosion, dissolution, diffusion etc). Capsules The second most common dosage form administered via the oral route are capsules. Capsules which are solid dosage forms are distinguished into two categories; hard gelatine capsules and soft gels. Soft gelatine shells are consisted of less gelatine compared to hard gelatine ones (43%), 37% of glycerine and 20% of water. On the other hand, in hard gelatine shells no glycerine is added and larger amount of gelatine is obviously used. Although both capsule types are widely used, soft gels have some more advantages due to the accuracy and precision of dose that they offer, the accuracy of fill volume as well as the fact that they are preferred for high dose poorly compressible drugs. Generally speaking both capsule types are from the dosage forms that can be massively produced in a manufacturing scale and achieve appropriate dose in combination with the preferable size, shape and colour. Hard gelatin capsules Soft gelatin capsules Capsules are more stable than liquid dosage forms and as it was mentioned above they contribute to accurate dosing. Such as with tablets, they are quite easy to administer and any unpleasant tastes can be easily masked. Capsules release properties can be managed and further studied and it is also possible light resistant capsules to be produced. Patients compliance is another important issue too. The basic disadvantages are pretty much the same with those of tablets. Capsules as tablets are not indicated for people with swallowing difficulties including the elderly and children. They are also unsuitable for very small children and the use of animal gelatine in their formulation process might be an important religious issue. The aim of developing a capsule formulation is first of all to prepare a capsule with accurate dosage, good bioavailability, stability, elegance and facility in the production stage. In capsule formulation is very important the mixture that will be added into the capsules to have been blended very well and being 100% homogenous. Disintegrants are usually included in capsule formulation in order to help capsules contents to be distributed in the stomach. Aqueous solutions cannot be filled in hard gelatin capsules because water softens the gelatin and destroys the capsules. However, there are some exceptions of a few aqueous solutions (included oils) that can be added in hard gelatin capsules. In general, capsules are consisted of two main parts: the body and the cap. Almost all of the pharmaceutical companies that produce hard gelatin capsules use gelatine produced by ingrained bovine spongiform encephalopathy. This material is a good film former, soluble in water and is able to fluid in GI at normal body temperature without to release any of the ingredients of the capsule. Capsules are available in a variety of sizes and the appropriate size is chosen each time according the fill volume of the ingredients. Capsule sizes In hard gelatine capsules and generally in capsules, there is one extra step compared to tablets; that is the dissolution of the capsule shell. When the capsule will pass through the GI and will be placed in a dissolution medium at approximately 37ÃŽÂ ¿C, the gelatin will start gradually to dissolve. So, firstly the cap and afterwards the body will start to melt, and as a result the dissolution medium will penetrate into the capsule ingredients. Oral Solutions Solutions are from the oldest dosage forms used in pharmaceutical formulations. Their strongest advantage is based on the fast and high absorption of soluble medicinal products. Being from the simplest formulations to prepare concerning both time and cost, solutions are still one of the leading dosage forms due to their application in patients with swallowing difficulties and their easy administration. For example they are administered in geriatrics, in paediatrics as well as in patients in intensive care or patients suffering from psychiatric problems. Solutions are divided in oral solutions (elixirs, linctuses, syrups, mixtures, draughts, spirits and paediatric drops), in external solutions (lotions, liniments, external applications and collodions), in gargles and mouthwashes as well as in enemas and douches. Care pholcodine oral solution BP Focusing on the oral solutions, they contain a liquid which is characterized by its homogeneity and in which one or more active ingredients have been dissolved. Contrary to suspensions, in solutions there is no need for shaking before use. Most times, water is the preferred vehicle due to its multiple properties. Solutions offer immediate absorption of the drug and the drug dose can be also shaped regarding the patients needs. On the other hand, the drug stability is importantly affected in solutions and unpleasant tastes cannot be so easily masked as in other dosage forms (for example in tablets). As with suspensions, solutions do not offer a convenient transport due to possible container breakages. Other disadvantages involve the use of a measuring device in order to administer the appropriate dose to the patient which further requires a relevant technical accuracy. Finally, the fact that some of the drugs are poorly soluble enables the creation of a vehicle which usually consists of water and a variety of other solvents in order the chosen drug to be dissolved. Solubility which is an important factor to investigate in solutions, is directly connected to particle size, stirring, viscosity and temperature. Physical and chemical stability are other factors that need to be taken in consideration while dealing with the formulation of this specific dosage form. Oral Suspensions Generally speaking suspensions cover a wide range of pharmaceutical products involving enemas, ear drops, inhalations etc. Focusing on the suspensions administered via the oral route (mixtures for oral use) at least one of the active ingredients is suspended in a vehicle. According to the British Pharmacopoeia oral suspensions are oral liquids containing one or more active ingredients suspended in a suitable vehicle. Suspended solids may slowly separate on standing but are easily redispersed. Suspensions are an alternative way of drug administration which would not be so convenient for use if taken in other dosage forms (e.g. tablet). They are preferred from patients who experience swallowing difficulties and they are indicated for paediatric or/and geriatric use. Paracetamol oral suspension Some of the advantages of suspensions over other pharmaceutical formulations involve the palatability and stability that can be achieved using insoluble drugs. As it was mentioned above it is easier to swallow suspended insoluble powders and the absorption stage will be really faster that any other solid dosage forms which require dissolution before absorption. On the other hand, shaking is necessary before use and most times the dose is not as accurate as in equivalent solution. The disperse system can be also affected depending on the storage conditions. Finally it is not so easy to transport suspensions and extra caution is needed due to possible container breakages in this specific dosage form. Suspensions are further categorized into diffusible and indiffusible ones. Diffusible suspensions use light insoluble (or very slightly soluble) powders which during shaking require longer time to disperse uniformly (compared to indiffusible suspensions) in order to be made up to an accurate dose. Light Kaolin BP and Magnesium Trisilicate BP are some common diffusible powders which are completely insoluble in the water. Calamine BP and Zinc oxide BP are some of the commonly used indiffusible powders (heavy powders which are not soluble in the vehicle). One of the basic differences between these two categories is that in indiffusible suspensions a suspending agent is added for facilitating the vehicle to be thickened. Oral Emulsions British Pharmacopoeia states that oral emulsions are oral liquids containing one or more active ingredients. They are stabilised oil-in-water dispersions, either or both phases of which may contain dissolved solids. Solids may also be suspended in oral emulsions. When issued for use, oral emulsions should be supplied in wide-mouthed bottles. Q-LAX Oral emulsion Generally speaking the term emulsion is connected to applications with external use, lotions and creams. However pharmaceutically it is used for preparations that are used to be administered via the oral route. Emulsions are dispersions of oil in water or the opposite. Tiny droplets indicate the dispersed phase. Therefore the use of an emulsifying agent is necessary in order to assure that the oil phase is normally dispersed in the presence of water. Oral emulsions are usually oil-in-water whereas those that are intended for external use are usually water-in-oil respectively. As in suspensions, the artificial palatability of unpalatable drugs in emulsions is a strong advantage. It is also quite easy to flavour the aqueous phase and the sensation or/and the taste of the oil is something that can be easily removed. This dosage form has an increased rate of absorption and can combine even two incompatible ingredients (one in oily and another one in the aqueous phase). Passing to the disadvantages, some similarities can be identified between emulsions and solutions. The first one is the use of a measuring device in order to administer the appropriate dose to the patient which requires a relevant technical accuracy. Stability can be affected depending on the storage conditions and as in suspensions (but not in solutions), a good shake of the preparation is required before administration. As it was mentioned twice above, emulsions, suspensions and solutions do not offer a convenient transport due to possible container breakages. Finally in emulsions cracking can be caused due to the microbial contamination of the preparation. Although emulsions are a very helpful and useful dosage form in pharmaceutics, they are widely used more in external preparations than in internal ones (via the oral route). Conclusion Different drugs are administered via different routes of administration. Criteria such as either the speed or the efficiency with which the drugs act are decisive in order to choose the most appropriate route of administration and consequently the dosage form. More specifically, in terms of the oral route of drug administration different dosage forms were analyzed, discussed and their advantages and disadvantages were compared. Of course it is pointless to say that one of these dosage forms which are taken orally (tablets, capsules, oral suspensions, solutions and emulsions) is the best as each one covers specific aspects and purposes and is used under different circumstances. Tablets is the most commonly used dosage form with a very interesting as well as complicated manufacturing background. They are available in different types (e.g. immediate, modified release etc) and they are most preferable by patients. Capsules is another solid dosage form which is also preferred by patients. Tablets and capsules as solid preparations share common advantages. However patients compliance is their strongest one. When tablets or capsules cannot be swallowed then the use of other oral dosage forms such as solutions, suspensions or emulsions is necessary. Swallowing difficulties can be found especially in the elderly, in children or in patients in intensive care or with psychiatric support. Solutions and suspensions are used more widely than emulsions intended for internal use (via the oral route). Basic differences between those focus on palatability and stability of the preparation. To summarise it needs to be mentioned that it is not up to the formulator to decide the route of administration of each drug. This is solely determined by the physical characteristics of the drug itself, absorption and release factors.

The Federal Reserve - Its Time to Put an End to Central Bank Independence :: Economics Monetary Policy Feds Restraint

The Federal Reserve - It's Time to Put an End to Central Bank Independence If "taxation without representation" could rally the colonists against the British Crown in 1776, tight money and ruinous interest rates might be cause for populist revolt in our own day. Federal Reserve monetary policy also has severe social burdens, measured by huge changes in aggregate output, income, and employment. The imperious Fed, much like the English Crown two centuries ago, formulates and carries out its policy directives without democratic input, accountability, or redress. Not only has the Fed's monetary restraint at times deliberately pushed the economy into deep recession, with the attendant loss of millions of jobs, but also its impact on the structure of interest rates and dollar exchange rates powerfully alters the U.S. distribution of national income and wealth. Federal Reserve shifts in policy have generated economic consequences that at least equal in size and scope the impact of major tax legislation that Congress and the White House must belabor in public debate for months. Popularized studies of Federal Reserve performance in recent decades convey the image of the Fed seated in its Greek temple on Constitution Avenue, with Chairmen Volcker and Greenspan elevated to the realm of the gods. From centers of economic power around the nation - Wall Street, Capitol Hill, the White House, and corporate boardrooms - the classical Greek chorus intones its defense of Federal Reserve independence. On the surface, central bank independence seems an eminently reasonable, appealingly simple solution for an agonizingly complex and muddled process of making economic policy in this postindustrial, electronically linked, and computerized global economy. The independent central bank is an institutional concept that complements well the counterrevolution now underway in U.S. budget policy. Washington's fiscal policy is locked into a deficit-cutting mode for the near future, while Congress is determined to retreat from all discretionary spending, regulatory intervention, or measures to improve equity in the distribution of national income and wealth. With the federal fiscal policy on automatic pilot, the Fed's monetary policy could be removed entirely from the inefficiencies and confusion of the democratic process. But this deceptively simple conception poses profound questions for the process of democratic representative government in the United States as it pertains to managing the nation's economy.

Illuminati Research Paper Essay

Who are the illuminati? Can you rise to fame and gain money by selling your soul to the devil? Some have made a living for themselves in the spotlight without the help of the illuminati while others that joined regret their decision and would rather give up fame forever. There are many theories that will be talked about including excessive details on what illuminati supposedly is and does, background history and establishment, what the illuminati’s goals are, how to become a member, the symbols and puppets they use to spread Illuminati and brainwash people to praise this group including what they represent and how they are integrated into music, athletes, TV shows, even cartoons, and many more with much evidence on this speculation. The Illuminati is a secret society that allegedly controls world affairs and our government. It is widely believed that celebrities are the most common puppets chosen to commercialize the illuminati. Illuminati refers to various organizations claim ing to have unsubstantiated links to the original Illuminati, and often alleged to scheme to control world affairs by masterminding events and planting agents in government and corporations to establish a New World Order and gain further political power and influence. The conspiracy has been illustrated pulling the strings and levers of power, while staying hidden in shadows, in novels, movies, television shows, comics, video games and music videos. Before all the fame and money, however, the Illuminati’s first known existence was in the Bavarian illuminati, until it was ruled out by churches and the Bavarian government. The origin of this group traces back to the 1760s and a man named Adam Weishaupt, who defected from the Catholic Church and organized the Illuminati, financed by the International Bankers. Since then, according to the Illuminati, their top goal has been to achieve a â€Å"one world government† and to subjugate all religions and governments in the process. The Illuminati thus attribute all  wars since the French Revolution as having been fomented by them in their pursuit of their goals. Weishaupt wrote out a master plan in the 1770s outlining the Illuminati’s goals, finishing on May 1, 1776. In the 1780s, the Bavarian Government found out about the Illuminati’s subversive activities, forcing the Illuminati to disband and go underground. For the next few decades, the Illuminati operated under various names and guises, still in active pursuit of their ultimate goal. The Illuminati contend that they have achieved control over the world’s economy by controlling the International Bankers in their effort to create a one world. â€Å"Illuminati† claims to have unsubstantiated links to the original Bavarian Illuminati The Illuminati are a sect of the Freemasons. The Freemason adopted their beliefs and teachings from the Knights Templar, originally a religious and military organization during the crusades. By the 1300s, the Templars deemed themselves the â€Å"bankers of Europe,† because of their enormous wealth and the breadth of their organization; they were hoping to â€Å"become wealthy enough to buy the world.† The king of France and the Pope then conducted arrests and investigations of the Knights Templar. The Pope suspected the king’s investigation involved torturous methods and so h eld his own. As a result of these investigations, the Knights Templar was exposed as two-faced and evil. The Knights concealed one doctrine for only their masters – the one that proclaimed Lucifer as their god – and put forth a Christian front for the public. The Pope abolished the order and it fled underground, continuing only among its most trusted members.. When current members of the Freemasons were interviewed, they did not express any knowledge of any higher religious aims of the Orderbuthta it was an international secret fraternity based on good works. However, former members of the Masons explained that the organization was anti-Christ and Luciferically inspired, especially in its higher levels. This means that either current members would not reveal any of their knowledge because of binding oaths of secrecy, or that they were unaware of the Masons’ evil nature because they had not yet reached its highest levels. But how do you now become a member of the modern illumi nati? Members of the illuminati are chosen specifically from people that can influence others to join. You don’t join the illuminati and become a member just because you feel the need. You either are or you are not chosen. If you are in the correct circle with talents or gifts that can be  used by the group you may be chosen for particular activities including becoming an illuminati puppet, and as some are called princesses. The cost of joining after chosen costs selling your soul and worshipping the devil. Many celebrities act in the ways of illuminati, hinting that they are member or that they wish to be, but others have taken it a step further to clearly state in interviews that they sold their soul to the devil. Some talk of an alter ego they have that mimics a demon taking over the performer while performing on stage, or write lyrics in songs about joining the illuminati, selling their souls, or regretting joining in the first place. In his song â€Å"Eyes Closedâ€Å", Kanye West sates that he â€Å"I sold my soul to the devil that’s a crappy deal/Least it came with a few toys like a happy meal†. Kanye west announces that he is a illuminati member and acknowledges the fact that he does not think it was the best choice but he is rewarded by it, for example with fame, fans, and money. The illuminati allegedly runs the music industry, so by selling your soul to the devil you can gain instant fame In an interview given to Katy Perry she claimed, â€Å" when I was 15, because id grew up in a household where all I ever did was listen to gospel music and my parents were both traveling minister and so I kind of sang about what was going on in my life at 15 and that’s how I got introduced to the music industry cause I swear I wanted to be, like, the Amy grant of music, but it didn’t work out and so I sold my soul to the devil.† Katy Perry received instant fame by selling her soul to the devil, as she claims, after a failed attempt of singing gospel music on her own. Others have however written songs about regret in the illuminati or made music videos with hidden evidence showing them trying to escape the illuminati but are not able to for they appear trapped. Eminem rose to fame after going through heavy times of poverty. In his song â€Å"Say Goodbye Hollywood† Eminem says â€Å"Sayin’ goodbye, sayin’ goodbye to Hollywood â€Å"I don’t wanna quit, but shit, I feel like this is it/For me to have this much appeal like this is sick/This is not a game, this fame, in real life this is sick/†¦I love my fans/But no one ever puts a grasp on the fact/i’ve sacrificed everything I have/I never dreamt i’d get to the level that i’m at, this is whack/This is more than I ever could of asked/everywhere I go, a hat, a sweater hood, or mask/What about math, how come I wasn’t ever good at that/It’s like the boy in the bubble, who never/could adapt, i’m trapped/If I could go back, I  never woulda rapped/I sold my soul to the/devil, i’ll never get it back/I just wanna leave this game with level head intact Imagine goin’ from bein’ a no one to seein’,/ev erything blow up and all you did was just/grow up emceeing/It’s fuckin’ crazy/Cause all I wanted was to give Hailie the life I never had/But instead I forced us to live alienated, so i’m sayin’†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . emienem sold his soul to the devil and apparently regrets it but knows he is trapped, with no way of escaping. His reason for selling his soul is to give Hailey a life without hardship like himself, and he was in need of money to be able to raise her. He wants to leave Hollywood and stay away from fame as much as he can because he is sick of how it all came to him and he feels that he does not deserve this and make a mistake by sacrificing his soul for a fake life. In one line he says that he would never have rapped if he knew about this in the beginning. Unlike he did in this song, in other videos Eminem wears illuminati symbols like the eye of the devil. Many celebrities are constantly pictured flashing signs, either in concerts, music videos, or posing for pictures but what do these signs represent? Signs of the illuminati have become so common that celebrities who are constantly seen posing with them continue this less noticeably. The first symbol is the all Seeing Eye, or the eye of providence, one of the most widely recognized symbols of the Illuminati. The All-Seeing Eye was added to the original design of the Great Seal of the United States in 1776 by Pierre Eugà ¨ne Du Simitià ¨re and remained on the Seal with the addition of an unfinished pyramid when it was finally adopted in 1782. In 1935 the Great Seal was added to the $1 dollar note, the most widely circulated note on the planet, by President and Freemason Franklin D. Roosevelt. It represents the Eye of Lucifer. The Eye can see all and oversees its minions which are represented by the individual bricks of the pyramid. The 13 steps of the pyramid represent the 13 Illuminati Bloodlines which collectively rule over the planet. The year 1776 represent the founding of the Bavarian Illuminati by Adam Weishaupt. The eye is contained inside a triangular pyramid, which celebrities show by making the shape of a triangle with their hands. Some of these people include Kanye West, Jay-z, and Beyonce. All these people are affiliated with Roc-A-Fella records, Rockefeller being one of the thirteen bloodlines of the original illuminati .Another is the el diable used by lifting two fingers that represent the devils ,Lucifer’s, horns. The next  symbol is an owl. The owl is the symbol of Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, which relates to the illuminati seeing themselves as the wise rulers of the planet. Nest is the pentagram which symbolizes the practice and promotion of black magic. Another is the famou s six, six, six sign. This one is very commonly flashed with a circle made with the thumb and index finger in a hand and the three fingers pointing upwards forming three sixes .this is the number of the beast and antichrist. One person most famous for this is Miley Cyrus who uses this in countless music videos. The number of the beast is associated with the anti Christ who will eventually want to take control of the illuminati as the new world order is formed. The music industry incorporates this symbol, the others, and additionally more endlessly whether in videos, randomly, or at award shows. Lucifer is pictured as the Baphomet, a ram with his two horns. Beyonce claims in an interview with Marie Claire â€Å"I’ve created an alter ego: things I do when performing I would never do normally. I reveal things about myself that I wouldn’t do in an interview. I have out-of-body experiences [on stage]. If I cut my leg, if I fall, I don’t even feel it. I’m so fearless, I’m not aware of my face or my body,† .She later stated that this would not take over her until she looks at her fans, seconds before she starts to perform on stage. She explains her alter ego like a devi ls spirit that takes over of her when she performs that is not the real her, but as she calls it, Sasha fierce. The illuminati is secretly attempting to steadily take over all of the government to form a new world order no matter what it takes. Whether it be corrupting the music industry, integrating symbols in commercials and cartoons, or having puppets, it is all done. Illuminati puppets are used to brainwash others to worship this civilization of the devil, but you can be awakened, to realize not to fall into this trap, and learn to trust and hold on to your own values and earn the respect and money you deserve while staying true to yourself, and not becoming a fake. Works Cited http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/illuminati http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/illuminati https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=eminem%20illuminati%20interview&sm=3 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=moojoNsxtyc http://www.unc.edu/~ltolles/illuminati/Introduction.html https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=kcrMsD5LBn0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ffdQlTUFxTU https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=TAqYfYSRZZk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zc8oFArgr2Q https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=UTEJjFMoOac https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPMhN4ep8UI http://rapgenius.com/Kanye-west-eyes-closed-lyrics http://rapgenius.com/Eminem-say-goodbye-to-hollywood-lyrics

Is Consumerism needed to make the US economy healthy? Essay

When we define consumerism, we see that it is the protection or promotion of the interest of consumers. In other words it is the preoccupation of society with the acquisition of consuming goods,Í ¾ however the theory that an increasing consumption is beneficial. The United states face a colossal challenge, an economic affliction of great proportions. For decades wehave piled deficit upon deficit, mortgaging our future and our children’s future for the temporary convenience of the present. To continue this long trend is to guarantee tremendous social, culture, political, and economic upheavals. The economic ills we suffer have come upon us over several decades. They will not go away in days, week, or months, but they will go away. How does the situation appear today? A 2009 report of the U.S Department of Housing and Urban Development state: â€Å"increasing numbers of people are vulnerable to overburdened infrastructure, inadequate housing, and outmoded health system. In fact the United Nations agency UN ­HABITAT projects that within three decades, one of the three people will live in near total despair lacking sanitation and clean water, exposed to the imminent effects of diseases and possible pandemics. The U.S economy is still not good unemployment at 7.5%, wages for man who do have jobs are stagnating, but the economy is gradually getting better consumer confidence is at a five ­year high and new claims for jobless benefits at a five year low in fact in the past six months, employers have added 200,000 jobs a month. Stock ­market indexes are up more than 15% so far this year.

Samuel Adams, Revolutionary Activist and Philosopher

Samuel Adams, Revolutionary Activist and Philosopher Samuel Adams (September 16, 1722–October 2, 1803) played an important philosophical and activist role in early advocating the independence of the North American British colonies, and the eventual founding of the new United States. Fast Facts: Samuel Adams Known For: Important activist, philosopher, and writer during the American Revolution against Great BritainBorn: September 16, 1722 in Boston, MassachusettsParents: Samuel and Mary Fifield AdamsDied:  October 2, 1803 in BostonEducation: Boston Latin School and Harvard CollegeSpouse(s): Elizabeth Checkley (m. 1749–1757); Elizabeth (Betsey) Wells (m. 1764–his death)Children: Six children with Elizabeth Checkley: Samuel (1750–1750), Samuel (born 1751), Joseph, (1753–1753), Mary (1754–1754), Hannah, (b. 1756), stillborn son (1757) Early Life Samuel Adams was born on September 27, 1722, in Boston, Massachusetts, the eldest surviving son of 12 children born to Samuel (1689–1748) and Mary Fifield Adams: only Samuel, Mary (b. 1717), and Joseph (b. 1728) survived to adulthood. Samuel Adams, Sr., was a merchant, a popular Whig Party leader, and the Deacon of the local Congregational Church, where he was known as Deacon Adams. Deacon Adams was one of 89 grandchildren of the Puritan colonist Henry Adams, who left Somersetshire in England for Braintree (later renamed Quincy), Massachusetts in 1638- Sam Adams cousins included John Adams, who would become U.S. president in 1796. Mary Fifield was the daughter of a local businessman in Boston, a devout woman with an artistic bent. The Adams family early grew prosperous, building a large house on Purchase Street in Boston, where Samuel Adams and his siblings grew up. Deacon Adams was a huge influence on Samuel Adams life. In 1739, he was chosen to help draft legislative instructions for the Massachusetts colonys general assembly and became a formidable political force in the Whig party, serving as a representative to the provincial assembly. Together, Deacon Adams and his son fought a battle with the Royal government over a land bank scheme that lasted a decade after the Deacons death. The elder Adams had been part of the creation of a bank to assist farmers and business people get started. The colonial government rejected his right to do such a thing, and over the next two decades, it fought father and son to take possession of their property and businesses as recompense. Education Adams attended Boston Latin School and then entered Harvard College in 1736 at the age of 14. He started out studying theology but found his interests swinging towards politics. He received his bachelors and masters degrees from Harvard in 1740 and 1743, respectively. After graduation, Adams tried numerous businesses, including one he started on his own. However, he was never successful as a commercial businessman- his father saw that Sam had a growing dislike for authority of any kind. In 1748, Samuel Adams did find a direction: he and his friends formed a club to debate issues and launch a publication to shape public opinion called The Public Advertiser, in which Adams exercised his considerable persuasive writing skills. That same year, his father died. Adams took over his fathers business enterprise and turned to the part-time career that he would enjoy for the rest of his life: politics. Marriage and Early Political Career Adams married Elizabeth Checkley, the daughter of the pastor of the Congregational Church in 1749. Together they had six children, but all but Samuel (born 1751) and Hannah (born 1756) died as infants. In 1756, Samuel Adams became one of Bostons tax collectors, a position he would keep for almost 12 years. He was not the most diligent in his career as a tax collector, but instead continued and increased his writing and activism, quickly becoming a leader in Bostons politics. He became involved in numerous informal political organizations that had a large control over town meetings and local politics. On July 25, 1757, his wife Elizabeth died, giving birth to their last child, a stillborn son. Adams remarried on December 6, 1764, to Elizabeth (Betsey) Wells; his first wifes father officiated. Agitation Against the British After the French and Indian War that ended in 1763, Great Britain increased taxes in the American colonies to pay for the costs that they had incurred for fighting in and defending them. Adams strenuously opposed three tax measures in particular: the Sugar Act of 1764, the Stamp Act of 1765, and the Townshend Duties of 1767. He believed that as the British government increased its taxes and duties, it was reducing the individual liberties of the colonists, which in turn would lead to even greater tyranny. Adams held two key political positions that helped him in his fight against the British: he was the clerk of both the Boston town meeting and the Massachusetts House of Representatives. Through these positions, he was able to draft petitions, resolutions, and letters of protest. He argued that since the colonists were not represented in Parliament, they were being taxed without their consent. Thus the rallying cry, No taxation without representation. Taxes and Tea Parties Adams main suggestion for political action against the British was that the colonists should boycott English imports and hold public demonstrations. Although mob violence was common in the early days of the revolution, Samuel Adams never supported the use of violence against the British as a means of protest and supported the fair trial of the soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre. In 1772, Adams helped found a committee meant to unite Massachusetts towns against the British, which he later expanded to other colonies. In 1773, the British passed the Tea Act, which was not a tax and would have resulted in lower prices on tea. However, it was meant to aid the East India Company by allowing it to bypass the English import tax and sell through merchants it selected. Adams felt that this was just a ploy to get colonists to accept the Townshend duties that were still in place. On December 16, 1773, Adams spoke at a town meeting against the Act. That evening, dozens of men dressed as Native Americans boarded three tea importing ships that sat in Boston Harbor and threw the tea overboard, an act destined to be called the Boston Tea Party. The Intolerable Acts The British responded to the Tea Party by closing down the port of Boston, cutting off the lifeblood of trade to the citys economy. Some British lawmakers such as Edmund Burke, a member of the House of Commons, warned it would be counterproductive, that instead they should focus their anger at the guilty persons: John Hancock and Samuel Adams. But instead of punishing Adams and Hancock directly, the British government passed what would become known as the Coercive Acts or, more tellingly, the Intolerable Acts. In addition to the Boston Port Act, which itself included the limiting of town meetings to one a year, the government passed the Impartial Administration of Justice Act, that said that the Massachusetts governor should send government officials accused of capital crimes to England. The Quartering Act allowed British troops to use the colonists buildings as military barracks. Rather than intimidating or deterring him, Adams saw this as further evidence that the British would continue to limit the colonists liberty, and he counseled a hard line against King George III and his government. Representative Adams On May 3, 1774, Boston held its annual meeting to elect representatives to the Massachusetts House: Adams won 535 of the 536 votes cast and was named the moderator of the Town Meeting. They met again three days later and adopted a resolution calling for unity with the other colonies in a boycott and embargo of Britain in protest of the Boston Port Act. Paul Revere was sent out with a letter to the southern colonies.   On May 16, a March 31 report from London reached Boston: a ship had sailed with orders to bring Adams and Hancock back to England in irons. On the 25, the Massachusetts House of Representatives met in Boston and unanimously elected Samuel Adams as clerk. The Governor, General Gage, ordered the House adjourned until June 7 and moved to Salem, but instead, the House met on September 1, 1774, in Philadelphia: the first Continental Congress. Continental Congresses In September 1774, Samuel Adams became one of the delegates at the First Continental Congress held in Philadelphia, and his role included assisting with the draft of the Declaration of Rights. In April 1775, Adams, along with John Hancock, was finally a target of the British army advancing on Lexington. They escaped, however, when Paul Revere famously warned them. In May 1775, the Second Continental Congress was held, but Sam Adams did not hold a public role. Instead, he was part of the Massachusetts ratifying convention for the U.S. Constitution and helped write the Massachusetts state constitution. Although his eloquent written and oral support for the revolution continued to be heard, Adams role in the Continental Congress was primarily military: he served on several committees for military defense and armaments, and those for assessing the colonies defensive needs. That was his choice: he felt the importance of being prepared for the eventual war. Once hostilities began, he struggled to convince everyone that reconciliation was a delusion leading directly to destruction. Once the Declaration of Independence was made, Adams continued to work tirelessly as a leader for military activities, to gain foreign aid, and to get the machinery of government in order and functioning. In 1781, even though the final battle had not yet been won, he retired from Congress. Legacy and Death Adams had not given up on politics, however. He lost a highly contested bid for the U.S. House of Representatives in 1788, but when John Hancock ran for Massachusetts governor the following year, he agreed to run as Hancocks lieutenant. The pair was elected. Adams served as Hancocks lieutenant governor for four years and when Hancock died in 1793, he ascended to the governors chair. During the late 1790s, those in the U.S. government were divided into federalists, those who preferred a strong central government, and Republicans, who did not. As a republican-minded governor in a federalist state, Adams could see that at least for the moment, the federalists were winning out. When Samuels federalist cousin John Adams won the presidency, Adams retired from public life. Samuel Adams died on October 2, 1803, in Boston. Sources Alexander, John K. Samuel Adams: Americas Revolutionary Politician. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman Littlefield, 2002.Irvin, Benjamin H. Samuel Adams: Son of Liberty, Father of Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.Puls, Mark. Samuel Adams: Father of the American Revolution. New York: St. Martins Press, 2006.Stoll, Ira. Samuel Adams: A Life. New York: Free Press (Simon Schuster), 2008.

Technological Determinism essays

Technological Determinism essays Langdon Winner calls technological determinism "nave," because the viewpoint fails to take into consideration the impact of social and political forces on the shaping of technological systems in society (63). Technology has no will of its own; it would be impossible to separate the psychological, sociological, political, and economic influences on the inventor or engineer from the products that he or she creates. For example, an architect builds buildings according to the needs of the client and in accordance with the building codes and environmental laws of the community. Moreover, the architect brings his or her own aesthetic sensibility to the design project, which in turn impacts the overall atmosphere and feel of the surrounding area. The type of design the architect chooses is equally as informed by culture: a Chinese pagoda would probably not be built among a row of track housing in a Detroit suburb, for example. Furthermore, the architect works within the budgetary parameters of his client and within a specific time frame, both of which imply the economic factors that impact the shaping of technology. Related to these economic influences on technology is also the availability of certain building materials. The design of the building will depend partly on the materials used in its construction, which in turn are chosen for specific economic, social, and political reasons. For instance, a "green home" would use recycled materials, whereas a suburban track housing development would employ the cheapest materials possible. With this example of architecture, it is easy to see how the social shaping of technology is a more plausible framework for analyzing the relationship between technology and society than the Technological determinism seeks simplicity: technology exists for its own sake. Human minds and hands might mold technology from a practical ...

Acid Rain Science Fair Project Ideas

Acid Rain Science Fair Project Ideas Looking for creative science fair projects? Acid rain is an important, interesting topic. Acid rain (pH less than 5.0) is rain that is more acidic than normal (pH greater than or equal to 5.0). Rising to prominence in the 1960s when Scandinavian lakes became too acidic resulting in fish deaths, acid rain was traced to pollutant emissions from western and central Europe. Today, acid rain is a ubiquitous dilemma that is a serious issue in portions of North America and eastern Canada. Science Fair Acid Rain Project Ideas Explain how acid rain started.Show the rain cycle.What is the major cause of acid rain?How do we combat acid rain? What happens if we dont? Link Resources About Acid Rain What is Acid Rain?  - Article from the EPA includes a detailed diagram of the acid rain cycle.Environmental Protection Agency: Acid Rain Program  - Includes a copy of current laws and regulation.Acid Rain and Plant Growth  - Experiment developed concerning plant growth and acid rain. Recommended Books for Science Fair Projects 365 Simple Science Experiments with Everyday Materials -  The fundamentals of science are brought to life in a years worth of fun and educational hands-on experiments that can be performed easily and inexpensively at home. People who have purchased this book have called it easy to understand and great for the student who needs a project but they arent really interested in the sciences. The book is for both young and older students.The Scientific American Book of Great Science Fair Projects - From creating your own non-newtonian fluids (slime, putty, and goop!) to teaching a sow bug how to run through a maze, youll be astounded at the number of incredible things you can do with Scientific American Great Science Fair Projects. Based on the long-standing and well-respected Amateur Scientist column in Scientific American, each experiment can be done with ordinary materials found around the house or that are easily available at low cost.Strategies for Winning Science Fair Projects - Wri tten by a science fair judge and an international science fair winner, this must-have resource is packed with strategies and pointers for putting together a winning science fair project. Here youll get the nitty-gritty on a wide variety of topics, from the fundamentals of the science fair process to the last-minute details of polishing your presentation. The Book of Totally Irresponsible Science: 64 Daring Experiments for Young Scientists - Introducing 64 valuable science experiments that snap, crackle, pop, ooze, crash, boom, and stink! From Marshmallows on Steroids to Home-Made Lightning, the Sandwich Bag Bomb to Giant Air Cannon, The Book of Totally Irresponsible Science awakens kids curiosity while demonstrating scientific principles like osmosis, air pressure, and Newtons Third Law of Motion.

Project X Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Project X - Essay Example For the success of our project X, whose goal is to create a defense mechanism to save major important cities of the US from enemy missile attack, it is of utmost importance that we consider these methods and identify the potential risks for project X. Quantitative Risk Assessment System (QRAS) is a personal computer (PC)-based software tool for performing Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) supporting decision on funding -- cost-estimation steps. QRAS is designed to bridge the gap between professional risk analyst and the design engineer. It is a user-friendly, graphical interface design, used by managers and engineers with minimal specialized risk assessment training. Its front-end is a graphical point-and click tree system model, combined with elements, subsystems, and sub-systems – the system hierarchy used to attach known accident initiators or failure modes. This hierarchical feature helps in making a Master Logic Diagram. Mission profiles can be set on sub system run times – a Mission Timeline module feature. The potential risks of failure probabilities can be calculated with the Timing data in other parts of the QRAS. This tool helps in constructing Event Sequence Diagrams (ESDs), explaining the scenarios lea ding to catastrophic failures or success of pivotal events showing fail-safe design or even emergency procedures and reasons of failures. Fault trees are built with graphical interfaces, which are joined to ESD models. The different features of QRAS are quantified to check failure probabilities in physical variables, providing fast and exact solutions. This software tool generates conventional event tree, minimum cut sets of system fault trees and ESD end states automatically for the risk scenarios. The software tool QRAS can identify the potential best estimate of catastrophic failure probability of a mission like the loss of Mobile Housing Unit (MHU). It would calculate a system’s top-level and intermediate

Unfair Employment Practices Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Unfair Employment Practices - Assignment Example Unfair Employment Practices This will allow for the application fair practices as regards to individuals wage, hours of work. It also helps to provide an opportunity for employers and employees to talk and solve issues arising within the organization. The law has the powers and the right to protect employees by allowing them to join organizations. 1. According to Morris, (2004), the national labor relations act employers are prohibited from interfering with any affairs of the trade union. Therefore, the human resource manager should summon the truck drivers’ representatives and advise them on their union rights. S/he should advice them on how to file complaints in the court and the various processes involved for them to become non-union members. Employers who feel their rights and those of other employers are being violated should report to the national labor relations board (Mikva, 1986). This should take place within six months after the unlawful act has been committed. The employees should inquire abo ut the violations with the human resource manager outside the scheduled hours for work or may consult any other person who has the knowledge regarding labor issues. The employee or employees may then go ahead and file a case regarding the unlawful acts (Warm, 1938-1939). Since human resource manager has knowledge on employee’s dissatisfaction with the union, s/he should continue the negotiations in good faith. He/she should also put efforts to ensure the negotiations are successful so that they can reach a written and binding agreement regarding the terms and conditions of employment. 2. Employees have a right to form unions at their own consent. The national labor relation act prohibits the employer to question the employee regarding their labor union support in a manner that is likely to discourage the individual from engaging into the union activities. The employer should also not apply any discrimination when hiring employees for a given job because of their interest into getting into a union (Warm, 1938-1939). Therefore, the employee should not be discriminated but should be given the job. The employee has a right to encourage fellow employees to get into a union. These employees should not be discriminated against due to their efforts. 3. To reduce the high rates of strikes in the organization employers and trade unions enter into negotiations to reach a binding written agreement. When negotiating parties fail to agree, the employees have a right to go on strike. It is the right of employees to organize with one or more workers any activities that are geared towards improving the working standards of other employees in the organization. Employees can achieve this by raising issues with the employers or government bodies concerned with labor activities. If these issues are not solved, employees have a right to go on strike to air their grievances. The national labor relations board handles all negotiations that have reached a dead end. Therefore, t he company and the union representatives should report their grievances to the national labor relations board (Warm, 1938-1939). During a strike, employer can seek employee replacements. The employees can also be permanently replaced but cannot be terminated from the organization. The organization has the duty to reinstate all the striking employees at the end of the strike to their former positions as long as the employees have

ASSIGNMENT ON EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL RESPONSE Essay

ASSIGNMENT ON EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL RESPONSE - Essay Example Fast Food Industry The fast food industry has demonstrated significant growth and market opportunities which are characterized by the increase in disposable income among New Zealanders as attributed to the increased income and living standards. The trends of the New Zealand economy reveal an increase of monthly wage, benefits and bonuses among consumers. In addition, the busy lifestyles of consumers within the working class and institutions of learning have resulted to an increased consumption fast food. This is due to the cost effectiveness and convenience which characterize the fast food industry. It is in line with the market trends and business opportunities within the New Zealand food industry that Quick Meal Restaurant endeavors to invest within this market. Porter’s Five Forces Analysis Supplier power is one of the most important forces within the market which defines the competitiveness of a company (Pathak, 2012). The fast food production industry within New Zealand d epends largely on the ability of effective supply of raw materials for the production of high quality food products at the right time and quantity so that the needs of the consumers are met. The concentration of suppliers of food products within the New Zealand fast food industry is relatively high (Chand, Eyles & Ni Mhurchu, 2012). This reflects that fast food industries which require investing in this market have desirable market opportunities that they would invest in for competitive advantage. However, there are substitute food products within the New Zealand food industry which are likely to threaten the supply of fast food products. Porter’s analysis of market forces also demonstrates that the power of the buyer is one of the most significant forces within the market which determines the ability of a company to meet its business objectives (Pathak, 2012). The New Zealand fast food consumer is very sensitive to price and quality. This illustrates that the consumer factor s must be incorporated to company values for quality and price of fast food products for attainment of a competitive edge within this market. The threat of product or service substitutes is another external force within a market which influences the strategic competitive strategy of a company. For example food substitutes within large retailers and restaurants are likely to be a major business threat for a company that requires investing in the fast food market within this industry. The threat of new entrants into a specific market is described by Porter as a strong market force which determines the success of a brand within the market (Roy, 2009).

Communication Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 10

Communication - Assignment Example The quality means ability to disseminate information in a way that is appropriate for the audience and graphical summary is an example. I can excel in manual development of graphs through shading but lack skills for software applications. The quality means sensitivity to characteristics of the audience for an appropriate audience and cultural sensitivity is an example. I do excel in understanding people’s behavior but I cannot preempt culture. A wider interaction with people from different cultures can help me improve on this. This means engaging relevant parties, with a significant level of sensitivity to their privacy, by disseminating to them information that is necessary to their scope of duties. An example of the quality is the ability to select appropriate mode of communication. I am good identifying sensitive information about stakeholders but I occasionally fail in identifying a medium that can preserve

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) Assignment

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) - Assignment Example in the extraction process, oil sands production cost is relatively high and therefore investments in oil sands are quite sensitive to persistent changes in oil prices. Gas emissions into the air, water pollution, toxic tailing ponds and the chances of oil spills from pipelines in the oil producing areas are environmental concerns in tar sand processing (Miller 456).   According to Kuuskra( 3), shale is a close grained, sedimentary rock made up of mud from flakes of clay minerals and small particles of other materials, which is processed to produce natural gas and oil. Large deposits of shale are found in â€Å"United States, China, Argentina, Algeria, Canada, Mexico and Libya† (kuuskra 9). Extraction process starts with identifying economically viable well areas. Then, horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing methods are used in the extraction process.  In the hydraulic fracturing method, hydrocarbon in a shale formation is released by injecting water, chemicals and sand into a well. â€Å"Release of the hydrocarbon opens fractures in the rock allowing the natural gas to flow into the well†. (â€Å"exploration and extraction of shale† 10). Use of both methods together enables economical extraction of the shale gas. Unfortunately, mining of shale leads to pollution of the environment through emission of toxic gases in the air and also a poses a great danger to aquatic life if poisonous materials leaks in to the

Skills and Competitiveness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Skills and Competitiveness - Essay Example Advancement in technology has placed an even greater demand for skills. This is because the rate of technical change leads to higher levels of uncertainty for organizations which results in greater demand for problem solving skills   (Streeck, 1989). Countries such as the U.K are facing pressure from emerging countries such as India and China owing to their high growth rates and supply of high skills. Also, the demand for a highly skilled workforce has increased in the midst of intense global competition which has forced companies the developed nations to engage in ‘diversified quality production’ (Streeck, 1989).   On the contrary, critical studies have downplayed the importance of skills in securing innovation. In fact, the recent trend towards innovation may require â€Å"de-skilling† or reduction in the content of skills (Toner, 2011). According to these authors, the reliance on skill development through training has been reduced. This is attributed mostly to developments in the labor market such as self-employment and casualisation which require non-standard nature of work   (Toner, 2011). Furthermore, labor migration and labor mobility have further increased the power of workers and have reduced the incentives for firms to invest in developing skills of workers. Furthermore, the increased female participation in labor also acts as disincentive to train female employees with skills that they know will no longer benefit the organization once the females quit work (owing to family responsibilities or maternity leaves).

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) Assignment

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) - Assignment Example in the extraction process, oil sands production cost is relatively high and therefore investments in oil sands are quite sensitive to persistent changes in oil prices. Gas emissions into the air, water pollution, toxic tailing ponds and the chances of oil spills from pipelines in the oil producing areas are environmental concerns in tar sand processing (Miller 456).   According to Kuuskra( 3), shale is a close grained, sedimentary rock made up of mud from flakes of clay minerals and small particles of other materials, which is processed to produce natural gas and oil. Large deposits of shale are found in â€Å"United States, China, Argentina, Algeria, Canada, Mexico and Libya† (kuuskra 9). Extraction process starts with identifying economically viable well areas. Then, horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing methods are used in the extraction process.  In the hydraulic fracturing method, hydrocarbon in a shale formation is released by injecting water, chemicals and sand into a well. â€Å"Release of the hydrocarbon opens fractures in the rock allowing the natural gas to flow into the well†. (â€Å"exploration and extraction of shale† 10). Use of both methods together enables economical extraction of the shale gas. Unfortunately, mining of shale leads to pollution of the environment through emission of toxic gases in the air and also a poses a great danger to aquatic life if poisonous materials leaks in to the

The appeal of TV police drama Essay Example for Free

The appeal of TV police drama Essay Discuss the appeal of TV police drama with particular reference to The Bill and In Deep The Bill, shown on ITV1 at around 8.00, and In Deep shown on BBC1 at around 9.00, and after the news, are both police dramas. Therefore, they both are targeted to police drama fans. However, there are differences between two. In The Bill, there are lots of different codes and conventions found in typical police dramas. For example, there is a police station, panda cars, uniformed and plain clothed police, who carry out everyday tasks, such as dealing with burglary, assault, and racial abuse. In In Deep, there are also lots of codes and conventions of police drama, but they are different to that found in The Bill. For example, the policemen are plain clothed undercover policemen, there is a secret operation, cover stories, involvement in drugs, and 24 hour surveillance on a potential bad guy, which gives the program more of a gangster police drama feel about it. In The Bill, the narrative structure is very different to that in In Deep. It has very quick scene changes, and lots of intertwining storylines, very like a soap opera, in that there are many storylines going on throughout the episode. This is probably the reason that it is put onto our screens at a primetime slot, and therefore appeals to audiences who prefer the soap genre. Because the episodes are on every week, the budget is lower, so thats why the mainly the same locations are used, and thats why it develops more of a soap formula, as they cannot do really big scenes. In Deep has the narrative structure of a film, rather than a soap. The storyline is focused around one main storyline, with lots of twists coincided with it. It also shows a lot more violence, and more brutal scenes, because it is a series, therefore has a higher budget to film and construct these scenes. The Bill and In Deep has lots of enigma codes. For example, in The Bill, whether a beaten up man will tell on the police man that beat him up, and is a suspect off work with somebody, or is she, likes she says, ill, and in In Deep, will the coppers covering as drug dealers killer the supplys wife. These enigma codes keep up the audience interest in watching to the end of the episode. There is also a fair representation of policemen in both. In The Bill, you get to see more of the policemens personal life, and the question on how much personal life should be brought into the work place. In In Deep, the question is whether them acting as criminals is any better then the actually criminals themselves. All these points keep the watcher interested, and keeps audiences coming back to watch other episodes.

Synthesis And Characterization Of Cobalt Carboxylates Environmental Sciences Essay

Synthesis And Characterization Of Cobalt Carboxylates Environmental Sciences Essay Plastics are commonly added with certain additives for developing its better characteristics. Recent decades, some kinds of additives which are known as prodegradant additives are being developed for plastics film. Prodegradant additives can result in accelerating plastics degradation. It is important to develop prodegradant additives since plastic waste is viewed as a serious worldwide environmental and health concern as its character of being non-degradable. Many pro-degradant additives, composed of transmetal-organic acid salts, have been investigated in many researches as photodegradable additives for plastics. Cobalt carboxylates, namely cobalt laurate, cobalt palmitate, cobalt stearate, are kinds of which have been applied for LDPE films. In the previous method, cobalt carboxylates were synthesized by reacting sodium carboxylates and cobalt acetate. This paper reports a new method of cobalt carboxylates synthesis. The new method involve reaction between molten carboxylic acid w ith sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium carboxylate, and continued by reacting sodium carboxylate with chloride salt of cobalt. First reaction conducted at 80Â °C and under perfect agitation. Second reaction took place well in the low concentration of cobalt chloride, about 0.2 M or less and temperature 80Â °C. Cobalt carboxylates (cobalt laurate, cobalt palmitate, cobalt stearate) densities are 0.615, 0.391, 0.364 g/cm3 respectively. Their melting points are 107.83, 109.10, 114.40 Â °C respectively, obtained by DSC test. Thermogravimetric Analyzer (TGA) test have been done on cobalt carboxylates to investigate their thermal stabilities. All cobalt carboxylates start to degrade over 300Â °C, as shown in TGA test result. TGA studies indicate that cobalt carboxylates have stability at compounding and film blowing/casting temperature of polyethylene, 180-200Â °C. Keywords :Prodegradant additives, cobalt carboxylates, characteristics 1. Introduction Plastics production systematically increases, thus, also plastics waste amount grows. People rely to plastics in everyday activities, such as jugs, clothes, computer, etc [1,2]. Recently, the usage of plastics increases significantly. USs plastics production in 2000 amounted to more 45,000,000 metric tons [2]. Total resin consumption in Malaysia increased by 8% from 1.6 million MT in 2004 to 1.72 million MT in 2005, of which about 65% were polyolefins (PE PP) [3]. The municipal solid waste stream in the U.S. totals nearly 160 metric tons per year and consists of about 7-11% by weight of post-consumer plastics [4]. Plastics is now being viewed as a serious worldwide environmental and health concern, especially for disposable application such as carrier and garbage bags [2]. Its character of being non-degradable, is resulting in river pollution, choking in landfill [4]. The growing environmental concern has made plastics a target of much criticism due to their lack of degradability [5]. Therefore degradable plastics will be important issue to reduce plastics waste amount. Many researches have been done to obtain methods which can improve degradability of plastics. Some methods are used to accelerate the degradation process are the addition of transition metal pro-oxidants or carbon monoxide polymer, both of which are designed to catalyse photodegradation and thermal degradation [6]. The studies on utilizations of some additives have been performed by several researchers to obtain photodegradable plastics. The effect of a series transition metal (Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn) stearates on the photodegradation of a high-density polyethylene have been examined. The role of metallic compounds on the photodegradation of polyethylene has been extensively studied by several authors [7]. The effect of cobalt stearate on accelerated aging of LDPE has been studied. Cobalt stearate has been proven to have significant effect on accelerated aging of LDPE [8]. The effect of cobalt carboxylates namely cobalt laurate, cobalt palmitate, cobalt stearate, on the photo-oxidative degradation of low density polyethylene also have been investigated [9]. Cobalt carboxylates have been synthesized through double decomposition by reacting sodium carboxylates and cobalt acetate [9,10]. This paper report the study of new synthesis method of cobalt carboxyates through double decomposition method by reacting sodium carboxylates and cobalt chloride. This paper also attempt to investigate characteristics of cobalt carboxylates. 2. Experimental 2.1 Materials Cobalt chloride hexahydrate (Fluka), sodium hydroxide, lauric acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid (Merck) were used without any treatments. Deionized water was used for all processes. 2.2 Synthesis of cobalt carboxylates Cobalt carboxylates, namely cobalt laurate, cobalt palmitate, and cobalt stearate, were synthesized through two steps of reactions. First step, carboxylic acids (lauric acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid) were reacted with sodium hydroxide to produce sodium carboxylates (sodium laurate, sodium palmitate, and sodium stearate). The second step, sodium carboxylates (sodium laurate, sodium palmitate, and sodium stearate) were reacted with cobalt chloride to produce cobalt carboxylates (cobalt laurate, cobalt palmitate, and cobalt stearate) in solid phase . The solids were filtered and washed with hot water to separate sodium chloride. Finally, the solids were dried in the oven at 60 Â °C for 2 hours. 2.3 Characterization of cobalt carboxylates The characterization comprises density, melting point, and degradation temperature. Melting points were investigated using Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) Q1000 from TA Instruments, in N2 atmosphere, in temperature range 30-200 Â °C, at heating rate 10 Â °C/min. Evaluation of degradation temperatures were done using Thermogravimetric Analyzer (TGA) Q500 from TA Instruments, in N2 atmosphere, ramp method, heating rate 20 Â °C/min, final temperature 1000 Â °C. 3. Result and Discussion 3.1 Synthesis of cobalt carboxylates Synthesis of cobalt carboxylates comprises two steps of reactions. The first step, producing sodium carboxylates through reaction below. These reactions took place in liquid phase at 80 Â °C. Carboxylic acids were melted and added gradually with sodium hydroxide 0.25 M under agitation for one hour. The amount of carboxylic acids and sodium hydroxide were reacted in stoichiometric ratio. Perfect agitation was needed to reach a complete reaction. The second step, synthesis of cobalt carboxylates, was conducted by adding cobalt chloride hexahydrate solution 0.20 M into the product of first step reaction which contain sodium carboxylates. Cobalt chloride solution was added gradually. The reaction temperature was maintained at 80 Â °C, with continuous stirring. The second reaction could be written as follow: In the second reaction, cobalt carboxylates, which were produced in solid phase, would form suspension and became hard to be stirred. The low concentration of cobalt chloride was favored since reaction would take place well in low concentration. The low concentration of cobalt carboxylates would produce few solids of cobalt carboxylates. It mean that mixing process would run well and complete reaction could be reached. 3.2 Characterization of cobalt carboxylates Density Densities of cobalt carboxylates can be seen in Table 1. All of cobalt carboxylates are in the form of powder and have low density. Melting Point Tests have been done using Differential Scanning Calorimeters (DSC) to determine melting point of cobalt carboxylates. The DSC test results can be seen in Fig. 1, Fig. 2, and Fig. 3. The melting point of cobalt laurate, cobalt palmitate, and cobalt stearate was determined from the peak of endothermic melting transition. Melting points of cobalt carboxylates can be summarized as listed in Table 2 below. There are two endothermic peaks in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Two endothermic peaks are sometimes found in DSC test result. First peak indicate unstable melting process. The second peak represent stable melting process [11]. Melting points of cobalt carboxylates increase with increasing carbon chain length of carboxylates. Melting point of cobalt stearate which has 18 C is higher than melting point of cobalt palmitate which has 16 C. Melting point of cobalt palmitate is higher than melting point of cobalt laurate which has 12 C. Thermal stability Thermal stability was investigated using Thermogravimetric Analyzers (TGA). Degradation temperature (initial and final temperature of degradation) was determined from high decrease of weight during heating. It was shown by steep slope of the curve in TGA test result. Cobalt carboxylates lost more than 80% of their weight during degradation process. The final weight remained was around 10 % of initial weight. The degradation temperature increase from cobalt laurate, cobalt palmitate, and cobalt stearate respectively. All of cobalt carboxylates start to degrade at temperature over 300 Â °C. It means, cobalt carboxylates have good thermal stability since the temperature of blending/compounding of polyethylene is 180-200 Â °C. Cobalt carboxylates will not degrade at temperature of compounding and film blowing/casting of polyethylene. 4. Conclusion Synthesis of cobalt carboxylates could be conducted through reaction of sodium carboxylates and cobalt chloride in liquid phase. The melting point of cobalt carboxylates increased with increasing the length of carbon chain. Thermal stability also increased with increasing the length of carbon chain, as indicated by temperature of degradation. Cobalt carboxylates also had thermal stability at temperature of polyethylene processing.

Henry Ford :: essays research papers

Transportation has become a major necessity in today’s society. Without the industrial revolution introducing the automobile, most people would find it very hard and frustrating to get around. Henry Ford had become a big part of starting this faster and safer â€Å"transportation era†. His brilliant thoughts and ideas brought about things including the â€Å"assembly line† and the â€Å"Model T†. It is because of him we can generally travel without any major problems. Henry Ford was born on July 30, 1863 on a farm in Dearborn Michigan. Henry hated farm life and had a love and talent for running and fixing machinery. At the age of 15 he went to Detroit to train as a machinist. In 1888 he married Clara Bryant and had a son named Edsel Ford. In 1896, he completed his first automobile, the â€Å"Quadricycle† and in 1903 he founded the Ford Motor Company. Henry’s success was in fast motion and he was ready for anything that he was given. He was of ten known as â€Å"a little man challenging a monopoly†. This was just the beginning for Henry. He had no idea of how his name and how his product would take the industry to much higher heights. Clayton 2 In 1908 Henry brought about the Model T Ford. Henry’s company sold about 15 millions cars. This car is what Henry is best known for. Although Henry Ford was not the first man in history to create a vehicle with a motor, he was the originator of the â€Å"assembly line†. An assembly line is an arrangement of workers and tools in which the product passes from operation to operation until completed (Customs Dic. Microsoft Word). Although there are high tech. machines handling all the work in today’s factories, this assembly line was a brilliant idea for getting things done easier and quicker. Henry Ford started to age and realized that he could not run his business by himself. This is when he appointed his son, Edsel, to run the business for him. Unlike his father, Edsel went to Yale University and became very knowledgeable of machinery and the business behind it all. Henry Ford :: essays research papers Transportation has become a major necessity in today’s society. Without the industrial revolution introducing the automobile, most people would find it very hard and frustrating to get around. Henry Ford had become a big part of starting this faster and safer â€Å"transportation era†. His brilliant thoughts and ideas brought about things including the â€Å"assembly line† and the â€Å"Model T†. It is because of him we can generally travel without any major problems. Henry Ford was born on July 30, 1863 on a farm in Dearborn Michigan. Henry hated farm life and had a love and talent for running and fixing machinery. At the age of 15 he went to Detroit to train as a machinist. In 1888 he married Clara Bryant and had a son named Edsel Ford. In 1896, he completed his first automobile, the â€Å"Quadricycle† and in 1903 he founded the Ford Motor Company. Henry’s success was in fast motion and he was ready for anything that he was given. He was of ten known as â€Å"a little man challenging a monopoly†. This was just the beginning for Henry. He had no idea of how his name and how his product would take the industry to much higher heights. Clayton 2 In 1908 Henry brought about the Model T Ford. Henry’s company sold about 15 millions cars. This car is what Henry is best known for. Although Henry Ford was not the first man in history to create a vehicle with a motor, he was the originator of the â€Å"assembly line†. An assembly line is an arrangement of workers and tools in which the product passes from operation to operation until completed (Customs Dic. Microsoft Word). Although there are high tech. machines handling all the work in today’s factories, this assembly line was a brilliant idea for getting things done easier and quicker. Henry Ford started to age and realized that he could not run his business by himself. This is when he appointed his son, Edsel, to run the business for him. Unlike his father, Edsel went to Yale University and became very knowledgeable of machinery and the business behind it all.

How does Giddens solve the problem of agency versus structure? Essay ex

Giddens theorizes that structure and agency are a duality that cannot exist apart from one another. Human practices create both their consciousness and society. Because individuals make up society’s activities and structural conditions, they can choose to change it. Giddens calls this relationship between knowledge and practices the double hermeneutic. The daily routines and practices of individuals interacting with each other is what shape society. The actors have power over their actions, but the consequences are often unpredictable, allowing for change. Structure is defined by the rules and resources of society but without the human factor it cannot exist (Sociological Theory | Chapter 15 Chapter Summary, 2004). In contrast, he argues that â€Å"an actor ceases to be an agent if he or she loses the power to make a difference† (Ritzer, 2011, p 523). Giddens criticized structural theories that forced extreme limitations on the individual and placed them in a passive role in the creation of society. He suggested that actors could think about what they were doing and adjust their actions accordingly. He defined this ability as â€Å"reflexive monitoring† which is encompassed under the topic of the knowlegability of actors. Despite this reflective thinking on the part of the actors, sometimes things still go wrong. Gidden’s view takes into account a person’s tendency to misinterpret a situation (no one is perfect). In another scenario, a person’s actions might be miscalculated for a number of unconscious reasons. In either case, in his opinion, actors are less knowledgeable than interpretative sociologists would suggest (Gelderblom, 2011). Giddens argues that the interaction, between discursive and practical consciousness, is also how... ... systems allows for social changes while bridging the structure-agency dilemma (Miller, 2007). References Gelderblom, D. (2011). Sociological Theory Study Guide 2, Chapter 3: Anthony Giddens. Retrieved January 14, 2012, from http://myedison.tesc.edu/tescdocs/Web_Courses/SOC-417 OL/Study_Guide_8e/Study_Guide_2_417_8e.pdf Miller, S. (2007, January 4). Social Institutions (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved January 14, 2012, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/social-institutions/#AgeStr Ritzer, G. (2011). 10. Sociological theory (8th ed., p. 351-390). New York: McGraw- Hill. Sociological Theory | Chapter 15 Chapter Summary. (2004). Agency-Structure Integration. Retrieved January 14, 2012, from http://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072817186/student_view0/chapter15/chapter_summary.html

Cognitive psychology Essay

Cognitive psychology focuses on how a person interprets a picture or message. For example, a double figure drawing such as the top down example below is one part of the cognitive thinking process. Another mental exercise is the bottom-up perception of drawings and messages.   Often times, the judge in court cases would ask the professional interpretation of the psychologist to help mitigate or aggravate the current sentence of a criminal offender. The following paragraphs explain in detail what cognitive psychology means. 1. what advice would you give a judge to persuade her or him of the potential danger of wrongful conviction based on eyewitness testimony as the sole or primary kind of evidence? Support your claim using cognitive psychology research. The judge should not base his sentencing only on the sole eyewitness’ statement. For, the judgment should be mitigated or aggravated by the professional opinion of the psychologist.  Ã‚   It is a standard procedure for the U.S. judge to ask the Forensic psychologist  Ã‚   to give a psychological profile of the defendant. The psychologist will then make a profile of the psychological well –being of the person charged in court. The psychologist then applies the theories of cognitive psychology to determine the behavior, pathology and motivation and submit his findings to the judge. The judge will then include the psychologist’s professional opinion increase the defendant’s sentence for aggravating reasons (Burke 1). On the other hand, the judge could also decrease the defendant’s sentence for mitigating reasons. And the psychologist’s findings will be used either as an aggravating or mitigating evidence.   Normally, the psychologist can draw up the behavioral tendencies of the defendant by viewing the other evidences on the crime scene, the statements of various witness, friends, neighbors and relatives and prior psychological findings.   The psychologist is very much needed in the juvenile courts because the child’s behavior is not as mature as those who are eighteen yrs old and above. Generally, the juveniles commit crimes because of their psychological growth is not normal ( or abnormal?), The psychologist can recommend to the judge to transfer the child to child rehabilitation center for psychological rehabilitation(Barsalou 5). Likewise, the psychologist can persuade the judge to lessen the sentence in adult criminal cases.   The psychologist can opine that the sexual offense was psychologically caused by the defendant’s state of mind at the time of the crime. He or she could have been abnormal then. The psychologist can recommend a plea bargaining agreement with the Judge using his psychological findings in order to reduce the sentence that has been mandated by the criminal laws of the United States( Berger 10). In addition, the psychologist can issue his opinion to the courts regarding the reliability of the lone witness’ psychological profile. For, the witness may not qualify as a lone witness if the psychologist opines that witness’ statements were hallucinations, a big lie, or simply made because of the witness had misinterpreted the situation as what is was not. The psychologist will then assess the stimuli – response   makeup (cognitive psychology) of the offender. The psychologist can also assess the criminal offender’s impulse control and potential for the individual to commit crimes. Likewise, the psychologist can opine to the judge that he defendant cannot psychologically defend himself or herself in the witness stand (Gillespie , 27). This will then be a ground to decrease the sentence of the defendant upon conviction. To reiterate, the psychologist can tell the court that the defendant was psychologically abnormal when he or she committed the crime. Thus, the judge must compulsorily use the psychologist’s evaluations of the defendants and the witnesses to plug the holes in his sentencing process. Also, the sex offenders would need the psychologist’s hand to help them. The psychologist would then tell the court that the sexual offender’s sentence be reduced to being jailed at the Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center.   The psychologist would go about by stating that the defendant’s psychological makeup is the main cause of his continuing spree of sexual abuse cases. 2. Describe what implicit memory is. Based on Reber (1993) how is implicit learning and memory different from explicit learning and memory. Implicit memory states that prior experiences affect the current behavior of a person even though the person does not intentionally exert a single effort to ponder over his or her prior experiences.   Likewise, repressed memories of the past are equated with implicit memory.   For example, improving ones’ job performance falls under implicit memory and learning. This is the main reason why many companies prefer to hire and give higher salaries to people who have many years of hands –on experience behind them when they apply for a job. Definitely, a carpenter that has worked in house construction for the past twenty years would definitely be more skilled than a carpenter has tucked under his belt only one week’s hands –on experience.   Whereas, explicit memory is the conscious and intentional recalling of a person’s past experiences and informational data (French 26). A very clear example is trying to remember what today’s itinerary or hectic schedule is.   It would include a ride in the park with the family, a meeting with the board of directors in the company, or a customer dropping by to purchase new products. Another is trying to recall the details asked for in the Civil war classroom test. Further, trying to recall the ATM password or the email address log –in username and password when withdrawing money from the ATM machines falls under Explicit learning and memory. In short, explicit memory and learning entails effort exertion which includes thinking about one’s past experiences.   It also includes talking about one’s past experiences and writing them done. Further, it includes studying ones’ past experiences. For, they will surely increase one’s expertise on doing a specific job assignment (Esgate 15). Reber stated that implicit learning refers to the variances in the behavior of a person that is influenced by past experiences. However, the person is not aware or exerts effort to try to recall the past experiences. Reber proved his theory through countless experiments including probability learning.   His probability experiments prove that the subjects were able to recognize or learn the variance in probabilities of recurring events without their knowing that their prior experiences in the same situation have improved their changes of choosing the next probable event. One Reber experiment shows that the subjects were placed in a training phase. The subjects were told to observe   1,000 scenes at the rate of two scenes in one second in one experiment. The findings of this experiment shows that the subjects were able to learn what the next outcome would be in increasing accuracy as the test went on (Reder, and Schunn 46). Another Reber experiment shows that a person that solves several problems of the same will increase his or her speed and accuracy in solving such problems due to experience. However, the subjects were not aware of that their prior acts had influenced their current speed and accuracy. This is very true in classroom math exercises (Reder, and Schunn 69). Reber further emphasizes that memory and learning consists of conscious (Explicit) and unconscious (Implicit) learning processes (O’Brien-malone, and Maybery 38).   And, Reber insists that the questionnaire index test is an explicit learning process (O’Brien-malone, and Maybery 38). 3. Define what cognitive psychology is about. Cognitive Psychology is that branch of psychology that delves into the process of how a person uses his mind to find solutions to problems, memory as well as communication. It had metamorphosed from the Gestalt school of Max Wertheirmer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka. However, it was Jean   Piaget who increased interest in Cognitive Psychology with his theory that people have different cognitive processes from infancy to old age. Naturally, he emphasized that child cognitive learning is much different from a married person’s cognitive learning. Going deeper, cognitive psychology involves how the brain solves mathematical and other real life problems. And, the cognitive scientists believe that the problem solving cognitive process boils down to the basic stimulus and response theory.   For, each stimulus gives different responses to different people (Fleck, 6). What are the main topics? History. Cognitive psychology had branched out from mainline psychology into its own specialized field in the 1950s and 1960s as discussed in Donald Broadbent’s masterpiece entitled Perception and Communication in 1958.   It focused on the processing of information with the incorporation of Donald Broadbent’s paradigm theory. Basically it was a study on how a person thinks and reasons as he tackles each problem or situation in real life or in the classroom. Broadbent emphasized that the brain is a the central processing unit of the human being.   Then, George Miller created the WordNet which is the foundation for many machine ontologies today. This was also the basis that has permeated from cognitive psychology to other fields like social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology,developmental psychology.   Currently, current cognitive theories are being attacked from many sides. One such side is the dynamic system proponents. Further, cognitive psychology has gathered the fruits of researches in artificial intelligence and other fields of expertise in the 1960s and the 1970s (Esgate 15). Major research areas.   Currently, the major research areas of cognitive psychology are general perception, psychophysics, attention, pattern recognition, object recognition and time sensation (Berger ). Cognitive psychologists.   The list of cognitive psychologists continues to grow through the years. Some of the more famous ones are Johan Anderson, Robbie Case, Lev Vygotsksy, Alan Baddeley, Frederic Barlett, Aaron T. Beck, Donald Broadbent, Reber, Jerome Bruner, Fergus, Craik, Keneth Craik, Hermann Ebbinghaus. Albert Ellis, and Jean Piaglet (Berger, 4). What are some basic assumptions? Cognitive process involves a stimulus and the corresponding response to such stimulus. Basically, cognitive theory states the problems in math and other real life situations can be easily accomplished with the use of algorithm. Algorithm is the set of rules that will give a specific solution for a set of inputs. For example, one plus one (inputs) is equal to two ( the algorithm here is to count how many ones are there). Here, the rules for cognitively solving problems are rather vague or too complex for the simple -minded person to comprehend.  Ã‚   Logically, there is another way of cognitively solving problems. This is what is called in psychology circles as heuristics. In sharp contrast, heuristics shows that the rules of solving classroom and real life problems are clearly understood but the final solution varies from one situation to another. What are some of the different methods employed by cognitive psychologists? The psychologists employ several methods to deepen their study of cognitive psychology. One such method is the scientific method. Another method is to use a person’s cognitive outfit in terms of belief, motivation and desire that are part of the mental processes. But, they always use subjects in their researches on how a person interprets a picture, a messages or other types of communication signals passing his or her way.